Lomax, Alan, and Conrad M. Arensberg. "A Worldwide Evolutionary Classification of Cultures by Subsistence Systems." Current Anthropology 18 (1977): 659-701. The principal determining feature of a culture is its subsistence method; this is an old idea, but consistent with recent theory explaining culture as management of energy. Language variability is decidedly not a marker of culture types. Subsistence methods shape work relations, and in turn a variety of communication behaviors. Subsistence types can be distinguished in an evolutionary taxonomy involving three developmental phases (extractors, food producers, and industry); six general stages within the extractor and food producer phases (collectors, hunters and fishers, incipient producers, animal husbanders, pastoralists, and plow agriculturalists); a number of regional families distinguishing each of the general stages; and the families in turn located as areal specializations.

The authors present (pp. 668-79) a brief description of each of the areal specializations-which they characterize as "in good part a roll call of dead or dying peoples," "an artificial game, played with grave markers"-and codings from Murdock and elsewhere of 1304 societies for the variables of mode of subsistence, consanguineal kin groups, intensity of agriculture, type of crop, degree of nomadism, games of chance, presence of the plow, type of domesticated animal, milking, presence of wealth or class distinctions, presence of slavery, and presence of wooden houses (pp. 680-98).

The journal issue includes comments from eight readers (pp. 702-05), and a reply from Lomax and Arensberg (pp. 705-07); references cited, pp. 707-08. For additional comments from readers, see CA 19 (1978): 170-71; (1978): 421-23; (1978): 626-27; and 21 (1980): 128-29; another reply from Lomax and Arensberg is in CA 19 (1978): 627-28.

Lomax, Alan, et al. "A Stylistic Analysis of Speaking." Language in Society 6 (1977): 15-47. Report of a preliminary study of "Parlametrics," a coding of conversational samples following the Cantometrics model. Based on work with 114 language samples, correlations were discovered which replicate the findings of Cantometric analysis, supporting Lomax's argument that the song, dance, and speech of a community are communication systems related to its socio-economic system. For example, high repetition in conversation correlates with low to moderate political centralization and simple productive systems; long speech lengths correlate with extra-local political control and complex economies; and clear syllabification correlates with egalitarian roles and feminine autonomy.

Lomax, Alan. "Universals in Song." World of Music 19, Nos. 1/2 (1977): 117-29. [French trans.: 131-41.] Revision of Lomax (1976): 11-28.

Lomax, Alan. "Appeal for Cultural Equity." Journal of Communication 27 (1977): 125-38. Abr. version in African Music 6, No. 1 (1980): 22-31. Revision of Lomax (1972), to which is added a brief summary of the Cantometrics findings-viz., that each of the regional musical style traditions, as arranged in four supra-continental styles or as understood in terms of an evolutionary progress toward differentiation and from integration, is an equally successful and valuable symbolization of the adaptive plan of the producing culture.

Barrand, Anthony. Come for To Sing 5 (Spring 1979): 23-25. [Abridged version in Sing Out! 27, No. 4 (July/Aug. 1979): 35.]

Carroll, Jim. Folk Music Journal 3, No. 4 (1978): 385.

Fowler, Charles B. High Fidelity/Musical America 28 (Sept. 1978): MA 10-11.

Seeger, Pete. Sing Out! 27, No. 3 (May/June 1979): 32, and No. 4 (July/Aug. 1979): 35.

Crist, Christine, Jon Dunn, and Robert Revicki. "Song as a Measure of Man." Music Educators Journal 62 (1976): 26-35. Rpt. from a pamphlet, Song as a Measure of People (Harrisburg, Penn.: Pennsylvania Department of Education, 1976), pp. 24; first issued as Song as a Measure of Man (1975). Enthusiastic summary of the Cantometrics system, based on a two-day workshop conducted by Lomax in Harrisburg, Penn., in the Fall of 1974. Besides summarizing the approach and main findings of Cantometrics, the authors emphasize the usefulness of the training tapes in acquainting people with other cultures and their expressive forms, and the need to preserve variety of expression in an age of homogenized mass culture.

Henry, Edward O. "The Variety of Music in a North Indian Village: Reassessing Cantometrics." Ethnomusicology 20 (1976): 49-66. Argues that both song styles and social forms in the Bhojpuri language region of India are too diverse for the simple Cantometrics characterization of Old High Culture and text-heavy, individualized singing. Songs that fit the Cantometrics model are present, but so are more that do not fit; and further, other explanations are possible of expressive forms than the economic determinist one-such as the entertainment function of non-repetitive songs and the influence of diffusion in other song features. But Henry concludes-much as does Maranda (1970)-that Lomax's "multi-faceted and seminal contribution" to the study of the relationship of music structure and non-musical aspects of culture deserves consideration, despite the flaws in his generalizations and economic theories.

Irvine, Judith T., and J. David Sapir. "Musical Style and Social Change among the Kujamaat Diola." Ethnomusicology 20 (1976): 67-86. Songs described by informants among the Kujamaat in Senegal, and confirmed by historical evidence, as being "old-fashioned" and "new" can be distinguished in terms of scale resources and performance roles in ways that support the Cantometrics conclusions. As the Kujamaat economy became more diversified, as external contacts became easier with the avoidance of intervillage warfare, and as the Kujamaat began to experience greater individualism and freedom of choice, the songs of the Kujamaat began to use more scale resources, to introduce solo singing and deemphasize the chorus, and to allow the soloist more room for improvisation. Irvine and Sapir conclude that ". . . for the Kujamaat the roles available in musical performance reflect the structure of participation in other aspects of Kujamaat social life" (p. 77); this is not a mechanical mirroring of non-musical behaviors, but a co-determination of the musical system and the social system by "a set of interactional opportunities and expectations that underlie them" (p. 81).

Lomax, Alan. "A Note on a Feminine Factor in Cultural History." Being Female: Reproduction, Power, and Change. Ed. Dana Raphael. The Hague: Mouton, 1975, 131-37. Song style symbolizes, and may reinforce, masculine and feminine roles in nurturing and food production. The styles and roles co-vary with climate and technology. Hunting and fishing in cold latitudes precludes young children; the corresponding "masculine" communication style is harsh, noisy, aggressive. Gathering in tropical latitudes can include children; the corresponding "feminine" communication style reflects the more equal participation of women, and is open-voiced and integrated. The feminine communication style-integrated, polyparted-may be reappearing now in socialist and other industrial societies (in preference for collective and mass performances-ballet, marching bands). Comparison of male and female performances across cultures in dance and music reveals as central tendencies the differentiated, aggressive, irregular masculine pattern, and the integrated, cooperative, regular, softer feminine style-styles which both symbolize nurturing behaviors and reinforce them.

Lomax, Alan. "Culture-Style Factors in Face-to-Face Interaction." Organization of Behavior in Face-to-Face Interaction. Ed. Adam Kendon, et al. The Hague: Mouton, 1975, 457-74. Summary of the evidence from song, dance, and speech of (a) the increase with productivity of articulation and control in communication systems, and (b) the parallel increase in organization of work groups, which is reflected in communication style. Contemporary and local examples are introduced-black gospel singers such as Sister Rosetta Tharpe, the songs and speech of Father Divine, the song performances of the Beatles and Dylan. Concerning speech, there is evidence from analysis of conversation of the same patterns of communication dominance that one finds in songs-e.g., cultures with simple economies and high communal solidarity will favor songs with high choral cohesiveness and competitive, low-dominance conversation styles.

Lomax, Alan. "Singing: Folk and Non-Western Singing." New Encyclop?dia Britannica: Macrop?dia. 15th edn. (1974). XVI, 790-94. Brief explanation of Cantometrics, statement of some of the principal hypotheses regarding co-variation of song style and other human behavior, and identification of the prominent song and cultural features of African gatherers, Sibero-American hunters, nuclear American incipients, Pacific gardeners, Black Africans, Old Europeans, Northwestern Europeans, and Old High Culture.

Lomax, Alan. Dance and Human History. 16 mm. film, 40 minutes, color. Berkeley: Extension Media Center, U. of California, Berkeley, 1974.

Alter, Judith. Ethnomusicology 23 (1979): 500-03.

Kealiinohomoku, Joann W. Ethnomusicology 23 (1979): 169-76.

Fowler, Charles B. "Alan Lomax's 'Cantometrics' Links Song Style to Life Style." High Fidelity/Musical America 24 (May 1974): MA 14-17. Brief biography of Lomax, account of his creation (with Grauer) of Cantometrics, and summary of the principal findings concerning the relationship of the organization of the singing group to patterns of integration and coordination in society. This article, with its continuation (Fowler, June 1974), is the best popular introduction to Cantometrics.

Fowler, Charles B. "Cantometrics, Continued: In Search of a Musical Universal." High Fidelity/Musical America 24 (June 1974): MA 16-19. Continuation of Fowler (May 1974), discussing the significance of such parameters as wordiness, enunciation, vocal tension, orchestral organization, vocal ornamentation, presence of counterpoint; describing the Cantometrics training tapes; and pleading for the use of Lomax's work in music education and anthropology.

McLeod, Norma. "Ethnomusicological Research and Anthropology." Annual Review of Anthropology 3 (1974): 99-115. Review of ethnological writings, divided into two sections. The Historical Overview section summarizes studies purporting to establish unilinear evolution, or Kulturkreis, or cultural areas, or music classifications. The Modern Trends section summarizes studies which find linguistic models for music and studies which show the relations of music and culture. Lomax is considered at length in the last category, McLeod arguing that his work "clearly heralds a new understanding of music" but that it is flawed by several untenable assumptions: that a subjective analysis of music will suffice, that each culture has a single musical style, that music is culture-specific rather than context-specific, and-as a development of the last point-that music reinforces group norms (when in many cases its function is to relieve social stress, and so occurs at points of uncertainty and tension, performed by individuals and not by groups).

Lomax, Alan. "Cross-Cultural Factors in Phonological Change." Language in Society 2 (1973): 161-75. Summary of the correlations between vowel/consonant patterns in song samples and cultural features, leading to three principal hypotheses: (1) high front vowels (iy, ih) increase in frequency as males come to dominate the productive system; (2) dominance of males over females in the social system is indicated by the level of high front plus low front vowels (e.g., low front [ae] is twice as common in songs of cultures with severe sex codes, low central [ah] half again as frequent in songs of permissive cultures; "It is tempting to surmise that this opposition between [ae] and [ah] represents a primal communication factor that shapes all vocalizing" [p. 167]; and (3) as productivity becomes more complex, the importance of back consonants (e.g., h) declines and the importance of alveolar discriminations increases. Lomax concludes that vowel and consonant patterns are a metalinguistic system which, like song and dance, varies from culture to culture but always promotes coidentification and interpersonal cooperation.

Ferris, William R., Jr. "Folk Song and Culture: Charles Seeger and Alan Lomax." New York Folklore Quarterly 29, No. 3 (1973): 206-18. Summarizes some ideas of Charles Seeger and George Herzog on the relations of song style and culture, in order to assert that "... most of the concepts Lomax applies to folk music and its culture are developed from other scholars ...," esp. Seeger and Herzog. Ferris' account of Cantometrics is little more than a cursory summary of Lomax, Folk Songs of North America (1960), and Lomax (1967); though published in 1973, Ferris does not cite the main publication in Cantometrics (Lomax 1968), nor any other publication later than Lomax 1967-which he consistently mis-dates as a 1969 publication and for which he presents meaningless page references.

Lomax, Alan. "Brief Progress Report: Cantometrics-Choreometrics Projects." Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 4 (1972): 142-45. Summary of the Cantometrics and Choreometrics projects, with a request for assistance in collecting dance films and a preview of new research and publications. Lomax concludes that the studies of music, dance and spoken dialogue demonstrate that "performance[s] in all three media communicate and reinforce a small number of messages about social relations."

Lomax, Alan. "Appeal for Cultural Equity." World of Music 14, No. 2 (l972): 3-17. [In English, French, and German. See Lomax, "Appeal for Cultural Equity" (1977).] Argues that all expressive systems are equally valuable, and that theri preservation in the face of the homogenizing influence of centralized, Western electronic media and mercantile forces is in the interests of all people. The remedies lie in equal access of different expressive systems to the electronic media, their study in the classroom, and an understanding of the relationship of each expressive system to the politico-economy and supporting social relations of the culture in which the system is a native tradition.

Lomax, Alan, and Norman Berkowitz. Science 177 (21 July 1972): 228-39. [See Lomax and Berkowitz (1973).]

Suzanne Youngerman, CORD News 6 (1974): 6-19, esp. pp. 16-17. Criticism of "false premises" and "misinterpretations of dance behavior" presented in the article.

Escobar, Roberto. "Hacia un Enfoque General de la M?sica en Am?rica Latina." Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 8 (1972): 105-18. [English abstract, pp. 118-19.] Latin American music is related to European music, but developed within traditions so different that European notation is an inadequate method of analysis. That notation does not reflect the aspects of music that link it with culture, that make music a social expression. Cantometrics is an analytic method which "puede ser la ?nica salvaguarda de los valores musicales aut?nticos de la regi?n ..." (p. 116). Cantometrics "es el primer sistema que realmente permite determinar los perfiles culturales que reflejar?n la caracteristica regional, nacional, o mundial de una obra y en consecuencia un sistema ideal para la situaci?n musical en Am?rica Latina" (p. 117).

Seaton, S. Lee, and Karen Ann Watson. "Counter-Culture and Rock: A Cantometric Analysis of Retribalization." Youth & Society 4 (1972): 3-19. Using nonmetric (ordinal) multidimensional scaling, the authors reworked data from the Cantometrics project, as reported in Lomax (1970). Song samples from 91 culture groups?90 reported by Lomax, plus a coding of some recent rock songs?generally confirmed the world song map presented in Lomax (1968), esp. the main contrast between groupy and individualized performances. The authors' main purpose was to test an hypothesis derived from McLuhan that rock music represents retribalization. Comparing rock music with the music of "tribal" societies (characterized by nonspecialization, decentralization, and egalitarianism), the tribalization hypothesis was disconfirmed. But as represented on the song style map, the movement from U.S. pop music of the 1950s to rock music ca. 1965-70 is in the direction of the tribal societies?which may represent either an emergent tribalization or an emergent generational organization of society.

Lomax, Alan. ?Choremetrics and Ethnographic Filmmaking.? In Filmmakers Newsletter.

Erickson, Edwin Erich. "The Song Trace: Song Styles and the Ethnology of Aboriginal America." DAI 30, No. 9 (1970): 4471-72 B. [Abstract of Diss. Columbia 1969.] Coding and comparison through Cantometric parameters of recorded song performances from all of Amerindia demonstrated broad similarities among New World song styles, with differences which appear at a detailed level of analysis explainable as geographical or migratory phenomena. The working hypotheses were that the cultural subsystem of style is expresssive of the society; that song styles would be stable, with changes explainable in cultural contexts; and that the exchange of style features among peoples would have cultural relevance.

Erickson, Edwin. "Cluster Test of Folk-Song Styles." American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 1260-65. Printed as Appendix D of Naroll (1970). Consists of tables of data omitted from Lomax (1968), including:

> Diffusion Arcs
> Cluster Test: Explicit Singing and Sociopolitical Top
> Cluster Test: Class Stratification and Interval Width
> Cluster Test: Vocal Polyphony and Productive Complementarity
> Cluster Test: Vocal Tension and Strictures of Premarital Sex Sanctions on Women

Naroll, Raoul. "What Have We Learned from Cross-Cultural Surveys?" American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 1227-88. Includes (p. 1248) a brief summary of Lomax (1968), concluding that Lomax has demonstrated correlations but not causation. Most valuable for its inclusion of tables of data omitted from Lomax (1968); see Erickson (1970) and Lomax (1970).

Lomax, Alan. "The Homogeneity of African-Afro-American Musical Style." Afro-American Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives. Ed. Norman E. Whitten, Jr., and John F. Szwed. New York: Free Press, 1970, 181-201. Presentation of Cantometrics data for eight African areas, showing a strong regional identity but distinct differences along a sub-Saharan border; and comparison of these data with Afro-American, esp. Haitian, Cantometrics profiles. Lomax concludes that, contra Jackson, the Afro-American musical style is strongly influenced by its African heritage, showing European influences only in such features as four-phase strophes, medium-length phrases, wordiness, and simple meter.

Lomax, Alan. "Folk Song Style Codings." American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 1266-77. Printed as Appendix E of Naroll (1970). Consists of codings of 233 culture samples along the 31 lines of the Cantometrics instrument. The principal body of data concerning song styles used for the correlations presented in Lomax (1968).

Maranda, Elli K?ng?s. "Deep Significance and Surface Significance: Is Cantometrics Possible?" Semiotica 2, No. 2 (1970): 173-84. Caustic but witty review of Folk Song Style and Culture (1968), attacking Lomax's methods and conclusions - especially those concerning the correlations of song features and degrees of sexual permissiveness - on the ground that the methods are naive and clumsy, the conclusions the product of bias and inattention to conflicting details. Despite the rejection of virtually the whole of Lomax's work, however, Maranda, ends by affirming with Lomax that "...song expresses more than it says," and by stating the hope that detailed and disciplined studies will now be done (by Lomax on American songs, Erickson on Amerindian songs) to discover the relationship between expressive features and other cultural products.

Lomax, Alan, Irmgard Bartenieff, and Forrestine Paulay. "Choreometrics : a method for the study of cross-cultural pattern in film," Sonderdruck aus Research Film 6 : 515-17, 1969.

Lomax, Alan, et al. Folk Song Style and Culture. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publ. No. 88. Washington, D.C.: AAAS, 1968.

"Choreometric profiles" in Folksong Style And Culture, Alan Lomax, et al., eds. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication n. 88, 1968.

Lomax, Alan, Irmard Bartenieff, Imgard, & Forrestine Paulay, "The Choreometric Coding Book" in Folksong Style And Culture, Alan Lomax, et al., eds. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication n. 88, 1968.

Downey, James C. Ethnomusicology 14 (1970): 63-67.

Driver, Harold E. Ethnomusicology 14 (1970): 57-62.

Harber, A. Folk Music Journal 2, No. 1 (1970): 57-58.

Hentoff, Nat. Jazz & Pop 8 (1969): 13.

Kealiinohomoku, Joann W. CORD News 6 (1974): 20-24.

Krader, Barbara. Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 6 (1970): 113-18.

Laban, Juana de. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 28 (1969): 106-08.

Malmstr?m, Dan. Svensk Tidskrift f?r Musikforskning 53 (1971): 134-36.

Merriam, Alan P. Journal of American Folklore 82 (1969): 385-87.

Naroll, Raoul. Science 166 (17 Oct. 1969): 366-67.

Nettl, Bruno. American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 438-41.

Ostwald, Peter F. Archives of General Psychiatry 20 (1969): 734-35.

Pantaleoni, Hewitt. African Music Society Journal 4, No. 4 (1970): 130-31.

Pantaleoni, Hewitt. Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 4 (1972): 158-61.

Seeger, Pete. Sing Out! 19, No. 3 (Sept./Oct. 1969): 25.

Stein, Johanna. Journal of Music Therapy 10 (1973): 46-51.

Williams, Drid. CORD News 6 (1974): 25-29.

Lomax, Alan. "The Good and the Beautiful in Folksong." Journal of American Folklore 80 (1967): 213-35. Argues that the "good," defined as adaptive and normative social behavior, and the "beautiful," defined as esthetic style or as communicative behavior, co-vary, specifically that the beautiful symbolizes and reinforces the main adaptive patterns of a culture. Following a brief explanation of the Cantometrics system, evidence for the argument is provided from six stylistic groups: (1) solo and non-specific, (2) choral, acephalous, and non-specific, (3) choral, acephalous, non-specific, and integrated, (4) unison, non-specific, and poorly integrated, (5) antiphonal, integrated, polyphonic, large choral performance, and (6) elaborate, melodically complex, constricted, specific, and exclusive.

Lomax, Alan. "Song Styles: An Indicator of Popular Culture." Public Opinion Quarterly 31 (1967): 469-70. Summarizes three conclusions from the Cantometrics project: (1) song styles are located on the paths of great historical migrations or interchange; (2) Negro African and Afro-American styles are related, as are Amer-Indian styles, but Europe possesses three distinct style regions; and (3) song style features symbolize and reinforce social interaction patterns. [Abstract of paper presented at the Conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, May 1967.]

"Writer Report." BMI Feb. 1967: 12. Brief summary of Lomax's report to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 27 Dec. 1966.

Lomax, Alan. "Special Features of the Sung Communication." Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts. Proceedings of the 1966 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society. Ed. June Helm. Seattle: U. of Washington P, 1967, 109-27. Distinguishes the sung communication from the spoken communication in that the former is more redundant, its referents are cultural and persistent rather than situational and idiosyncratic, and its principal message-bearing elements are formal rather than textual. Therefore, the approach of Cantometrics, which studies the social, formal, and presentational aspects of songs in relation to their song-producing cultures, is more informative than traditional studies of songs in terms of pitch and rhythm. Examples of song-systems that typify cultures are those of Negro Africans, North American Indians, and Old High Culture.

Elder, Jacob Delworth. "Evolution of the Traditional Calypso of Trinidad and Tobago: A Socio-Historical Analysis of Song-Change." DA 27, No. 10 (1967): 3382-83 A. [Abstract of Diss. Pennsylvania 1966.] Calypso was "Originally a medium of social protest" but has over time "evolved into national prominence." Cantometric studies of Trinidad calypso show that the form and content of these songs vary with "the status and social power of the ethnic group from which the singers arise."

Grauer, Victor A. "Some Song-Style Clusters?A Preliminary Study." Ethnomusicology 9 (1965): 265-71. Identification of four style clusters-Modern European, Bardic, Semi-Bardic, and Pygmy-using the "admittedly crude" technique of specifying a few hypothetical parameters, pulling from a data bank songs reflecting those parameter codings, and then looking at the geographical distribution and other style features of the songs. Grauer speculates that the Pygmy style, distributed randomly throughout the world, is the original vocal form and has survived wherever a community has remained somewhat isolated and has retained an integrated, non-hierarchical social organization.

Lomax, Alan. "Song Structure and Social Structure." Ethnology 1 (1962): 425-51. Abr. version in The Sociology of Art and Literature: A Reader. Ed. Milton C. Albrecht, et al. New York: Praeger, 1970, 55-71. Explanation of the Cantometrics system, with the first publication of the coding sheet. Song profiles are presented to explain musical acculturation; the solo-unaccompanied song style of Western Europe as contrasted with the contrapuntal-hocketing style of Pygmy-Bushman music; and the general features of bardic, Amerindian, and Negro African patterns. In each case, the song styles are viewed as reflecting principal modes of political and interpersonal interaction; e.g., the dominance-subordination pattern of role-taking in the West, the despotic organization of the hydraulic societies of the Orient, the individualism of the American Indian, and communal and erotic interests of the Negro African, are all expressed in such song features as the relation of leader and chorus, vocal rasp and nasality, and the importance of song texts.

Lomax, Alan, and Victor Grauer. "Cantometrics." Journal of American Folklore Supplement April 1964: 37-38. Brief review of the Cantometrics project, with a request for field recordings from Siberia, the Pacific, aboriginal South America, and other areas.

Lomax, Alan. "Folk Song Style." American Anthropologist 61 (Dec. 1959): 927-54. Distinguishes ten musical styles, dealing most fully with Eurasian and Old European styles. These are correlated with sexual permissiveness, status of women, and treatment of children as the principal formative social influences. The musical styles are at the same time symbolic or expressive of such social influences, especially in the various musical communities of Spain and Italy, and are stable, persistent. Lomax states his expectation that further study and refinement of methods of measurement will increase our understanding of the relationships of musical style and culture in a way that Western European musical notation cannot adequately accomplish.